Misinformation & Fake News

The Claim: Drinking a pink salt diet beverage will result in significant weight loss.

To find the truth about this story, we will use Michael Caufield's Four Moves and a Habit. 

1. Check for previous work: For this case, we looked up this claim on Snope, which classifies this information as false.
2. Go upstream to the source: The article from Snopes has done the work of tracking this claim back to a story from 2022 from a TikTok influencer (archived story). This is an instance where an old story is being repackaged as new after making the rounds in 2022. This is a common tactic used by individuals making money off of clicks by driving traffic to their site. This particular story/scam often alters the recipe to add a "secret ingredient" that's available for sale through their site "while supplies last" or "for a limited time only". 
3. Read laterally: This claim preys on our desire for a quick, easy solution for weight loss, which can be very challenging and long-term success often involve lifestyle changes. A search in PubMed on the topic of "pink salt diets" or "saltwater diets" AND "weight loss" brings back zero results. PubMed is a good starting point for finding field research by and for health professionals, and the fact that there is no research on this diet as a effective weight loss method suggests its lack of success or health benefit. In fact, there is evidence that increasing one's salt intake can increase weight gain (Grimes et. al., 2020 and others). In their article, Snopes did the work of interviewing a professor in nutrition about this diet and she confirms that consuming additional salt doesn't help with weight loss and "the consequences of increased sodium in the diet could be dire, especially for people with certain health issues." Orsolya, and author for the site Malwaretips which deals with developments in cybersecurity, breaks down many of the scam elements at play in this story and discusses instances where AI-generated videos are used to add a fake celebrity endorsement. 
4. Circle back: Because this is a popular story/scam, you may find ourself inundated with websites that proclaim the benefits and provide testimonials. Remember that how you set up your search prompt will influence what you get for results. If your prompt is "benefits of pink salt diet" you're likely to see websites that talk about the benefits. With all sources, be conscious of their potential bias and whether they are selling you something. Use the CCOW method for source evaluation. You can also circle back to the original claims being made and use those as the basis for evaluating accuracy.  

Check Your Emotions: If the recipe for miraculous weight loss feels too good to be true, it probably is.  

Conclusion: Recipes promising significant weight loss by drinking salt water and some combination of other pantry ingredients are not shown to result in actual weight loss.

In a video posted to his X account in January 2025, Retsef Levi claimed that nRNA vaccines "cause serious harm"; this was viewed by 2.5M people. In June 2025, Health and Human Services (HHS) Secretary, Robert F. Kennedy Jr., appointed Retsef Levi to an advisory panel at the CDC. In an interview from August 2025, when asked whether COVID vaccines using mRNA could be considered "gene therapy," he also claimed that "this is something very valid to argue."

What's the background research on mRNA vaccines?

The Claim: mRNA COVID vaccines are a form of gene therapy (DNA altering) and harmful. 

For this claim, let's explore some background about how mRNA works and what the vaccine research says. 

What's mRNA and what does it have to do with vaccines? 

To understand how mRNA vaccines work, let's start by learning a little bit about the COVID-19 Virus and human cells. 

What's a Virus? 

A virus is a collection of genetic code (RNA) contained inside a protein coat. The outside of the virus has little protrusions that are called spike proteins. (Protein is just a fancy name for organic molecules, the stuff we're all made out of). 

On a coronavirus, the Spike protein's job is to help the coronavirus enter your cell (It's like a doorman to the cell). The spike protein itself is not dangerous (only the RNA inside the protein coat on a coronavirus is dangerous). 

Spike protein's are important to vaccines because they have a unique structure that your immune system is able to identify. In some ways a spike protein is like a criminals fingerprint, and your immune system is a detective that is able to read fingerprints and then pursue criminals. 

What's mRNA? 

mRNA, or messenger RNA is single strand RNA molecule that can be read by your cell to make proteins. It is referred to as a messenger because it delivers protein building plans to the parts of your cell that build proteins. If you think of your cell as a large construction site, your cells DNA would be the equivalent of the construction master plans. DNA is stored in the nucleus of the cell (the equivalent of a central office on a construction site), and the DNA never leaves the main office. However, when workers have to go outside and build, they take copies of the relevant pages of the original master plan onto the construction site to go build. mRNA in our cells is the equivalent of these copies. mRNA contains the directions for making proteins, the building blocks of the body. Every single day our cells send mRNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where it is provides the directions for making proteins through a process called translation. Soon after translation (within minuets to hours) the mRNA in human cells starts breaking apart and the materials in them get recycled by your cell. 

What do mRNA Vaccines do? 

A mRNA vaccine reduces the likelihood of severe COVID cases by teaching and preparing your immune system to fight future COVID-19 infections.  The mRNA in the vaccines is the same type of molecule that comes from your cell's nucleus, which is already in your cells; the only difference is that it comes from the vaccine. The mRNA in the vaccine contains the instructions to make a protein that is very similar to the harmless Spike proteins on the COVID-19 virus. Once in your cell, your cell translates the mRNA, which means your cells make a protein that is very similar to the harmless Spike Proteins on the COVID-19 virus. When your immune system notices these new imitation Spike proteins, they go on the attack, and start breaking down these proteins. During this process they also learn to quickly identify the imitation spike proteins, and they build up armies of specialize "antibodies" that are trained specifically to attack that type of protein. As your cells are attacking these proteins and building up armies of antibodies, it is common to feel tired. This is because there is a lot of work going on in our cells. 

What happens when you're exposed to COVID-19 after receiving an mRNA vaccine? 

If you are exposed to the COVID-19 virus after receiving a mRNA vaccine, you are in luck, because your body will be better prepared to fight it than it would have been if you hadn't had the vaccine. When the COVID-19 virus enters your cells, the armies of antibodies that were built in response to the imitation Spike proteins will identify the COVID-19 virus Spike proteins, and will imediatley start to fight the COVID-19 virus. When this happens you still may get a little sick or be more tired than normal, but you are much more likely to avoid serious illness from COVID-19 than you would have been with out the immune system boost provoked by the vaccine. 

Because viruses evolve, and because antibodies don't last for forever, booster vaccines can help keep your immune system prepared with the most recent model of imitation Spike proteins.

In summary, the mRNA vaccine is an effective and safe way to expose you to the Spike proteins found on COVID-19 viruses, with out actually exposing you to the real coronavirus, so that your body can build up antibodies that are specialized to attack the COVID-19 virus in case it ever encounters the real virus. 

Learn more about mRNA: 

• 11 Things to Know About mRNA Vaccines for COVID-19
• Different types of COVID-19 vaccines: How They Work.
• Can mRNA Vaccines Alter A Person's DNA?
• What are mRNA vaccines and how do they work?

What the research says about using mRNA in vaccines?

In checking for previous work, we can find a thorough write-up from FactCheck.org that highlights significant background research on mRNA vaccine safety. A 2025 study published in JAMA Network Open addresses criticism about vaccine safety through a significant review (sample of 1,585,883 people), finding no statistically significant adverse affects across the 29 areas they looked at. Researchers the University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health and Penn State also published a study in 2025 that show promise for mRNA vaccines as a way to help with lasting immunity with a significantly smaller dose. 

You can also find a fact-check on Retsef Levi from NewsGuard. 

Conclusion: It is not possible for mRNA vaccines to alter your DNA and there is significant research demonstrating their safety and efficacy. 

On August 20, 2022, a TikTok video was posted, claiming that Disney World was going to lower the drinking age to 18. It was stated that Disney World was battling the Florida government in court to get a resort exemption, which would allow anyone 18 and older to drink on property. The TikTok video acquired millions of views in just a couple days. This story was also posted on facebook, instagram, and Twitter. Shortly after, the story made it on ABC 10 News.

The video originated from an article posted on a blog called Mouse Trap News. Small segment of the original article below. Full article can be found here: "Drinking Age at Disney World May be Lowered to 18".

The Claim: Walt Disney Company was seeking a resort exemption to lower the drinking age to 18 years old, in Disney World, Florida.

To find the truth about this story, we will use Michael Caufield's Four Moves and a Habit. 

1. Check for previous work: For this case, we looked up this claim on Snopes (fact checking resource). They published an article on the story and labeled it as fake news satire. It was also aired on ABC 10 News, on their fact or fiction segment, where it was determined to be fiction. View the news segment online.

2. Go upstream to the source: The TikTok video originally came from an article published by the same TikTok user, @mousetrapnews. They have their own webpage dedicated to news stories about disneyland parks.  The original article claimed that Disney was battling Florida in the courts over the minimum drinking age, but no evidence such as sources or court filings are mentioned.

3. Read laterally: Upon further exploration of the site itself, their About page actually bluntly admits that they only write fake stories about Disney Parks (see picture below).

4. Circle back: If we go back to the main article explaining the story, it reads in the description an explanation of the National Minimum Drinking Age Act passed by congress and signed into law by President Reagan. The article then asks the reader a question "Didn’t think you would get a history lesson from us, did you?" and "Now that we have set up the act, we have some Disney news to go with it.", these playful comments already makes the story a little suspicious. We can also check another form of social media the user has. They also had an Instagram account, where they state "Real Disney News That is 100% Fake" and "The Onion Of Disney News".

 Interestingly enough, many of the Mouse Trap News fake news stories have been featured on different news websites and shows, such as The Associated Press, USA Today, and on The Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon.

The Conclusion: The Walt Disney Company did not seek a resort exemption to lower the drinking age to 18 years old, in Disney World, Florida.

In October 2020, posts on social media and articles were published claiming that a new CDC study found the majority of those infected with COVID-19 ‘always’ wore Masks (examples of the articles below). This claim was further elevated on October 15, 2020, a town hall broadcast by NBC, interviewed U.S. President Donald Trump. During this interview Trump stated, "But just the other day, they came out with a statement that 85% of the people that wear masks catch it." Trump's source for this claim was the new study published by the CDC. Find the full transcription of this interview online. This information was ultimately, misinterpreted. Below is the CDC's tweet addressing the misinformation.

The Claim: CDC reported that the majority of those infected with COVID-19 ‘always’ wore masks.

To find the truth about this story, we will use Michael Caufield's Four Moves and a Habit. 

1. Check for previous work: For this case, we looked up this claim on Snopes and FactCheck.org (fake news fact checker). Both resources claim the information as false and misleading.
2. Go upstream to the source: The claim originated from a study published by the CDC titled, Community and Close Contact Exposures Associated with COVID-19 Among Symptomatic Adults ≥18 Years in 11 Outpatient Health Care Facilities. This study examined how SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, may be transmitted both within communities and between close contacts. While Trump used the correct percentage from the study, the data was misinterpreted. The study reported that 85 percent had reported wearing masks always or often. The study also found that for those in the group who had tested negative, 89 percent had reported wearing masks with the same frequency. The CDC pointed out that "People w/ and w/o COVID19 had high levels of mask use in public. Even for those who always wear a mask, there are activities where masks can’t be worn, like eating or drinking. People w/ COVID-19 were more likely to have eaten in a restaurant." The study noted, "Exposures and activities where mask use and social distancing are difficult to maintain, including going to locations that offer on-site eating and drinking, might be important risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection."
3. Read laterally: The claim is challenging the notion that wearing a mask is not effective at preventing the spread of COVID-19. We have to take in consideration that this study was investigating mask wearing in community activities. CDC's website provides Science Briefs which is a summary of the scientific evidence used to inform specific CDC guidance and recommendations. In one brief, they state, "individual prevention benefit increases with increasing numbers of people using masks consistently and correctly." So, the people from the original study might have not been using their masks effectively if repeatedly taking them off in social settings. Other medical experts such as Dr. Anthony Fauci, states "Masks aren't perfect. They help, but they're not a guarantee that you're not going to get Covid if you wear a mask”.  
4. Circle back: If you find yourself getting overwhelmed by other sources on the claim, circle back to the claim and investigate the background of that source. Using the AllSides Media Bias Chart, we can see that The Federalist is listed on the very, far right side of the chart. The author of that article, Jordan Boyd, has her twitter page linked to her name and we can see that her posts are on the far right of the political spectrum. The California Globe is listed as a conservative leaning publication on Snopes, many of their other posts written by the author lean to the right of the political spectrum. You can also circle back to the original study the claims were based on and question the accurateness. One issue with the study is the data was self-reported through phone surveys. So, people could have inaccurately reported mask use since there was no video monitoring to confirm. 

Check Your Emotions: The use of masks and its effectiveness against COVID-19 was a highly politicized topic when the pandemic started. By downplaying the severity of the virus (despite all the losses recorded by the CDC), President Trump's attitude about the pandemic and the use of masks contributed the view that the COVID-19 public health crisis should be viewed as a political issue.

Conclusion: The CDC did not report that the majority of those infected with COVID-19 ‘always’ wore masks.

The Claim: High doses of vitamin C can cure COVID-19.

To find the truth about this story, we will use Michael Caufield's Four Moves and a Habit. 

1. Check for previous work: Throughout the year 2020, many websites and social media posts were claiming how high doses of vitamin C could cure and/or be an effective treatment for COVID-19. For this case, we looked up this claim on Snopes (fact checkering source) which they claim the information as false and misleading.
2. Go upstream to the source: These claims stemmed from multiple studies detailing how vitamin C can help support the bodies immune system. According to Harvard Health Publishing, vitamin C has some marginal benefits for the common cold, such as reducing the duration of symptoms, if it is taken before catching a cold. Those benefits can be achieved with a diet that includes 200 milligrams of vitamin C, which is easily obtainable with a daily diet that includes fruits and vegetables .
3. Read laterally: To gain additional background on this claim, we can read multiple sources and about this case to see if it has been tested in trials. The CDC ultimately reported that there was insufficient evidence for the panel to recommend either for or against vitamin C for the treatment of COVID-19 and non-hospitalized patients. Most of the trials had a limitation such as small sample sizes, study designs that had different doses or formulations of vitamin C and different outcome measures.
4. Circle back: If you find yourself, getting overwhelmed by other sources on the claim, circle back to the claim, and investigate the background of that source. In this particular claim, there is some truth and vitamin C is good for your immunity. However, some of the hype around these claims came from unpublished sources, fake news, personal websites, and from "influencers" on social media. We can refer to the CDC website and peer review published articles about the relationship between COVID-19 and vitamin C. Clinical trials can be found on the ClinicalTrials.gov website.

Conclusion: doses of vitamin C are not a proven as an effective cure for COVID-19.

Claim: Putin intercepts adrenochrome shipment

1. Check for previous work: In this case if we looked for "adrenochrome putin shipment" to check for previous work, we would find that politifact.com already did a fact check on this story.

2. Go upstream to the source: This example is from Real Raw News. This website is known for fabricating stories; if that's information you knew coming into this evaluation, you would know this is an automatic red flag and we could stop here. However, if you didn't know that, you could make a few judgements about what other stories are on the page to get a sense of the angle and political bias for this news source. If you research Andrei Zakharov, whose name was used as a source of information, you'll find that he is a Russian journalist that works for the BBC Russian Service, not as Russian FSB Agent. As a story featuring adrenochrome and blood harvesting with a history of conspiracy theories behind it, you should already be skeptical. Looking up some of the facts in the story help us determine more about its truthiness.

3. Read laterally: Given what we've learned from steps 1 and 2, at this point in the evaluation we could stop our search, dismiss the story, and move on with our lives. However, if we aren't satisfied with what we found, out next step is to look for other stories about this issue. Are other reports of this story coming from reputable sources? Is the story reported elsewhere with the same facts? Are there discrepancies in what's being reported? This is the step where we need to be paying extra attention to who's publishing the story that corroborates this narrative. On the internet you can find pretty much anything you look for, but "anything" isn't always an accurate story to trust.

4. Circle back: There's plenty of facts within this story for us to investigate and check. However, we eventually want to come to a conclusion and circling back will bring us to the question of whether this story has any truth. Given what we've learned: no, this is not factual.

Check your Emotions: The habit we're practicing throughout is about checking our emotions. Do I want this story to be true? Does this story sound too outrageous to be true? Am I attached to what the truth about this story is one way or another?

The Claim: chickens are not laying eggs, because RNA is being added to commercial chicken feed.

To find the truth about this story, we will use Michael Caufield's Four Moves and a Habit. 

1. Check for previous work: For this case, we looked up this claim on politifact.com. This resource debunks it here.
2. Go upstream to the source: The claim originated from a published research article titled, "Messenger RNA sequencing and pathway analysis provide novel insights into the biological basis of chickens’ feed efficiency." This study aimed to characterize the biological basis of differences between chickens with low and high feed efficiency, with a long-term goal of improving the ability to select for feed efficiency. Nowhere in the article did it mention adding RNA to chicken feed. RNA sequencing was being used to see how differences in feed efficiency can be explained by what levels of RNA are produced by the chickens' cells.
3. Read laterally: The next step would be to see what others are saying about this claim based on the article. PolitiFact actually did many email interviews with experts in the field, to talk about the claim. Multiple experts said commercial feed manufactures were not adding RNA to chicken feed, and that this claim was a misinterpretation of the data. The FDA also confirmed that RNA is not on its own, a feed additive. The articles cited from the original TikTok video are not relevant to the argument made in the video. The FDA also stated that there are many ways why a chicken's egg-laying behavior and quantity could change. They recommended consulting a licensed veterinarian, who can examine the animal and take a detailed medical and diet history.
4. Circle back: If you find yourself, getting overwhelmed by other sources on the claim, circle back to the claim, and investigate the background of that source. The first thing one should question is how RNA is being referred to in the post. RNA stands for ribonucleic acid, which is a naturally occurring nucleic acid found in all living cells. So, the claim of adding synthetic RNA into commercial feed does not make any sense. Furthermore, a search can be done to confirm what common factors are affecting chicken egg laying. Common reasons listed were management practices, improper nutrition, parasite infection, disease, lighting, and stress.

Conclusion: RNA is not being added to commercial chicken feed.

Among the most notorious fake news stories of 2016 was one alleging that Hillary Clinton was running a child-prostitution ring out of a Washington, D.C., pizzeria. This had real-world consequences for the employees of that pizzeria when an armed man decided to "self-investigate" the rumors, as described in "Dissecting the #PizzaGate Conspiracy Theories," by Gregor Aisch, Jon Huang, and Cecilia Kang.

During the 2016 election, another persistent fake news story was that Donald Trump won both the popular vote and the electoral college vote. That Trump won the electoral college by a clear margin is undisputed. While the federal government did not release the official results of the popular vote until mid-2017, a great number of sources, ranging from the more conservative The Wall Street Journal to the more liberal The New York Times reported Hillary Clinton winning the popular vote by margins ranging from approximately a million votes (on Nov. 9, 2016) to three million (NYT estimate as of Feb. 10, 2017).

During the 2016 presidential campaign, fake news sites circulated several stories alleging that Hillary Clinton was in poor health, the implication being that she was not fit enough for the rigors of the presidency. Fake news site 70News dedicated an entire section to these rumors, most of which were bolstered by photos or video clips showing Clinton in moments of apparent frailty or disorientation. This illustrates a common fake news tactic: the use of tidbits of truthful imagery to support exaggerated or unsubstantiated claims. Laura Mallonee writes about this phenomenon in "How Photos Fuel the Spread of Fake News."

In many cases, spotting a fake news story takes paying attention to the message and clues around it. In this example, American News features an image of President Ronald Reagan, a revered Republican, in its title logo, suggesting its partisanship. However, this becomes irrelevant when one bothers to look past the headlines at the actual stories. The story featured below involves Muslims, but bears no other relation to its headline: it's about someone urinating on a prayer rug at the University of Michigan.

Not all fake news is geared toward a conservative audience; liberals may be just as quick to believe falsehoods that seem to confirm their hopes and fears. A February 2017 story run by Alternative Media Syndicate claimed that police forces arrayed against the pipeline protesters at the Standing Rock Indian Reservation raided and burned a protester camp, offering graphic imagery of flaming tipis as proof. This story is completely false; the image was taken from a 2007 HBO film, Bury My Heart At Wounded Knee. Snopes.com debunks the story here.

In February 2018, after surviving a shooting in which 17 of her schoolmates died, Florida teenager Emma Gonzalez became an outspoken proponent of gun control legislation. Not long after, imagery of her apparently tearing up a copy of the U.S. constitution went viral on right-wing websites. This imagery was doctored; the originals came from a Teen Vogue photo shoot in which Gonzalez symbolically tore up a target sign. Photo manipulation is a time-honored propaganda tactic, but is now easier than ever thanks to Photoshop and other editing tools.